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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;line-height: normal"><span>Meditations</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;line-height: normal"><span>Marcus Aurelius – Ca A.D. 170</span><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>“Rejoice and set up your rest in one thing: to pass from act to act of fellowship, keeping God in remembrance” (Aurelius 35).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>So run the thoughts of Marcus Aurelius, author of a unique work that the world has come to know as <em>Meditations</em>. Aurelius composed this work over a period of years when he was Emperor of the Roman Empire, with a commonly accepted date of authorship of circa A.D. 170. Originally untitled, the text consists of a collection of personal reflections made by the emperor that document his pursuit of virtue through the Stoic Philosophy. In fact, <em>Meditations</em> is one of the only sources of information on Stoic ethics that has survived in its entirety, allowing people of subsequent eras to learn of the graceful simplicity inherent in Stoic beliefs. Deeply personal and striving for eloquence, <em>Meditations</em> gives a unique glimpse of a man who was ruler of the largest empire the world had ever known and was still dedicated to living an ethical life. These are the reasons that Aurelius’ work has survived for so long, and also why <em>Meditations</em> should be preserved for future generations.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><em><span>Meditations </span></em><span>was born of a Roman Society that had enjoyed a long period of relative peace and security. Aurelius inherited an empire that had benefited greatly from his predecessors, the first four of the “Five Good Emperors”. Taxes had been lowered, housing and education had been provided for the poor, and persecution of Christians had been halted. Rome was teeming with public works projects, bringing new temples, aqueducts, baths, and theaters. Promotion of the arts had been made a priority and the borders of the empire had been secured (Morey). Roman citizens of this era enjoyed a more egalitarian environment where the focus had shifted from military campaigns to cultural refinement. Rather than starting from scratch, the Romans based their cultural pursuits on the foundation that had already been laid by the Greeks (Morey).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>A Greek creation that did particularly well with the Romans was the Stoic Philosophy. From its inception in 300 B.C. through 180 A.D. it was the most influential school of thought in the empire (Rees viii). Seneca and Cicero were among the many notable Romans of this period who wrote works that showed a distinct Stoic influence. Founded by Zeno of Citius, Stoicism grew out of two key beliefs of the Cynics; that people possessed an inner governing agent of morality, and that humanity should flee an overly materialistic society to return to a natural state. Stoicism took each of these a step further. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>The Stoics believed that this inner morality was held in common by all of humanity, that it was both rational and social, and that it surrounds us and determines our paths (Rees vii). Thus, we should live in fellowship as we are all spiritually connected, and anything that befalls us must be for the greater good because all things are guided by Nature. Secondly, the Stoics believed that any strong feelings, whether of attachment to material possessions or displays of raw emotion, were the result of inaccurate perceptions. A reasoned appraisal was to be the measure of all things (Baltzly). Stoics were also called to live a life free of any unnecessary obligations or activities that went against their natural inclinations. This was meant to leave them free to live in harmony with the guiding spirit of nature (Baltzly).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><em><span>Meditations</span></em><span> is an auto-documentary of Marcus’s efforts to reason out these beliefs and apply them to his own life. A singular work of its time, it is the living expression of the moralistic strivings of a Roman Emperor, the only emperor to leave this type of record and have it published so widely. Ironically, most scholars agree that it was never intended for publication. Written with little thought to form or continuity, the text consists of a series of short, reflective prose statements with no clear organizing principle. Full of repetition, <em>Meditations</em> returns to each of Stoicisms varied precepts time and again, as the emperor searches for the best metaphor, the best parallel, and the best words. We are thankful that he did; <em>Meditations</em> is one of only three surviving examples of a complete work on the topic of Stoic Ethics.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Though published wide, it was also published late. The first known reference to Marcus’s work was by a philosopher named Themistius in the 4<sup>th</sup> century, almost 200 years after it was written (Hadot 21). It is most likely that at the time <em>Meditations</em> was written Aurelius himself was the only audience. Recording his thoughts in this way must have been a means of self reflection for Marcus. The first chapter pays tribute to the influential figures in his upbringing, describing the virtues they imparted to him. Here we see some of the influences that may have led the Emperor to the Stoic way of life. His grandfather is thanked for “the lessons of noble character and even temper.” His father is thanked for his modesty, and his mother for teaching “…piety…simplicity too in diet and to be far removed from the ways of the rich”. Diognetus, his painting tutor, is thanked for teaching Marcus, “…to aspire to the camp-bed and skin coverlet and the other things which are part of the Greek training.” <span> </span>Appolonius, orator and Stoic philosopher, taught Marcus “…to look to nothing else, even for a little while, except to reason” (Aurelius 1). It seems clear that the young emperor had been raised in preparation for the reserved, minimalistic life of the Stoic. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>The remainder of the text is dedicated to the emperor’s efforts to expound upon the Stoic path to enlightenment. Staying connected to his beliefs in this way was undoubtedly therapeutic to Aurelius as he navigated one of the most unique periods in Roman history. Hadrian, a previous emperor, had stipulated that Aurelius’s adopted brother Lucius Verus would ascend to rule alongside him as co-emperor. T</span><span>he more common reaction would have been to bristle at the idea of sharing his power. On the contrary, it seems that the Stoic belief in controlling the passions helped him accept this reality and work within it for the greater good. The two emperors ruled side by side with no sign of rancor whatsoever (Knox). Sadly, </span><span>Marcus’s reign was also the end of the era of peace for the Romans; he was entrenched in war almost from the day of his ascension (Hadot 2). Book Two, titled <em>Written Among the Qadi on the River Gran,</em> was actually written in the field during a military campaign (Aurelius 104). The words of this chapter are somber, and the emperor seems to be contemplating his own imminent mortality. Still, Aurelius’s firm dedication to his philosophy is undeniable. I believe that recording these thoughts helped to strengthen the emperor as faced the greatest challenges of his life.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Though Marcus did not live to see his work reach a refined state, <em>Meditations</em> in its present form has endured for centuries. Scholars seem to agree that its survival is due to the unique place it holds in the scholarly canon of philosophy. Pierre Hadot is the author of <em>The Inner Citadel, </em>a detailed analysis of <em>Meditations</em>. In Hadot's words: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>In world literature one finds a lot of preachers, lesson-givers, and censors, who moralize to others with complacency, irony, cynicism, or bitterness; but it is extremely rare to find a person training himself to live and to think like a human being (Hadot 312-313). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Elsewhere, Hadot compares <em>Meditations</em> to: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>…[an] ever-new spring[s], to which humanity comes to drink. If we can transcend [its] perishable aspects, we can sense in [it] an imperishable spirit which calls us to a choice of life, to the transformation of ourselves, and to a complete revision of our attitude with regard to human beings and the world (Hadot 39). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This heavy praise seems to confirm <em>Meditations</em> as a singular work of lasting value.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>D.A. Rees of Jesus College, Oxford, has also written on the lasting impact of Aurelius’s struggle toward enlightenment.<span> </span>“…the <em>Meditations</em> remain, unendingly moving and inspiring, the communing with itself of a thoughtful and devout soul upon the greatest of human issues” (Rees xi). Again, this uncommon record of an emperors moral strivings are seen as inspirational, much as they certainly were to the author himself.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Earlier in his journey toward enlightenment the emperor drew inspiration from the teachings of a Stoic named Epictetus. One of Epictetus’s more accessible works was a compendium of Stoic sayings selected from his larger works. Titled simply <em>The Handbook</em>, this work was assembled in A.D. 135 and like <em>Meditations</em> also consists of short, philosophical reflections with Stoic ethics at its core. Though they shared a philosophy, Marcus and Epictetus were separated by a huge gulf of life experience. Far from an emperor, Epictetus came to Rome as a slave and at one point was even banished from the Italian peninsula (Graver). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This difference in status is ironic. Epictetus seems fully willing to speak on his own authority while Marcus, the emperor, relies sometimes on name dropping. Further, while <em>Meditations</em> is clearly the work of a novice striving for advancement, <em>The Handbook</em> is a masterful collection of polished metaphors designed to be easily accessible to beginners. At only 52 “verses”, <em>The Handbook</em> accomplishes a thorough going through while <em>Meditations</em> wanders to 12 Chapters. Still, <em>Meditations</em> conveys a more personal tone. Marcus’s philosophy is obviously linked to the events of his day to day life, which sometimes creep into the text. By contrast, Epictetus draws broad parallels for his audience to latch on to. And though he never comes near the line of offensiveness he can sometimes come across as a bit of a smart aleck.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This irreverence was probably a calculated element of Epictetus’s style. It helps to convey a lively tone, perhaps to hold the interest of weary students growing tired of their studies. He writes as an extrovert, bursting with energy, fully versed in his philosophy. The emperor comes across as a much more solemn figure, gazing inward to seek out some impurity and exorcise it. Even when he says “you” he seems to be addressing himself, morosely, instead of some prospective audience. While Epictetus skips along, Marcus steadfastly holds the course that will lead him to his personal truths.<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>To t</span><span>hose familiar with <em>Meditations</em>, the quote that begins this essay may give a hint about the work’s enduring appeal. But what is a true act of fellowship? What does God ask of us? These were the questions being asked and answered by a ruler who could have pursued a reign of tyranny and repression. I found this to be inspiring and more than a little amazing. I was also pleased to learn more about a philosophy that held many beliefs in common with my own faith, Christianity. It was entertaining to see a radically different context applied to familiar beliefs such as living a non-materialistic lifestyle connected with an all encompassing spiritual force. Despite this, my research has revealed the unfortunate fact that the persecution of Christians was resumed during Aurelius’s reign (Morey). In light of the words he recorded, I found this to be shocking and inexplicable.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>Looking beyond this, I also have mixed feelings about invading another person’s journal, thoughts they may not have intended to share. But this may not have been the case at all. We could be looking at a rough draft that the emperor simply did not live to complete. Still, I have my reservations. If I had known the nature of this work ahead of time my respect for the privacy of others probably would have kept me from reading it. But then I would have missed out on quotes like the one below, words that speak so well of Marcus’s contribution: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;text-align: justify;line-height: 200%"><span>Whosoever does injustice commits sin; for Universal Nature having made reasonable creatures for the sake of one another, to benefit each other according to desert but in no wise to do injury, manifestly he who transgresses her will sins against the most venerable of the gods, because Universal Nature is a nature of what is, and what is is related to all that exists. [sic]</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"><span><span> </span>So for any that take the opportunity to reflect alongside the emperor, the value of <em>Meditations</em> speaks for itself. Never before had an emperor left such a singular gift of philosophical teaching. If not for his efforts, we would be without a significant portion of what we know of a philosophy that permeated the Roman world. We would also miss a chance to reflect that even the best among us can take a false step, as the contradiction of Aurelius’s persecutions has shown. Preserving his <em>Meditations</em>, we preserve a snapshot of the human spirit, searching for truth.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;line-height: normal;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Aurelius, Marcus. <em>Meditations</em>. Trans. A.S.L. Farquharson. New York: Knopf, 1992. Print.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal"><span>Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism." <em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Stanford University, 15 Apr. 1996. Web.<span> </span>10 Feb. 2011. <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/</a></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal"><span>Graver, Margaret R. “Epictetus.” <em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Ed. Edward N. Zalta Stanford University, Spring 2009 Edition. Web. 13 Feb. 2011 &lt;</span><a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epictetus/"><span>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epictetus/</span></a><span>&gt;</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Hadot, Pierre. <em>The <span>Inner Citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</span></em>. Trans. Michael Chase. Cambridge, MA: <span> </span>Harvard UP, 1998. Print.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal"><span>Knox, E.L. Skip. "The ‘Five Good Emperors’ - Marcus Aurelius (161-180)." <em>History of Western Civilization</em>. Boise State University. Web. 13 Feb. 2011. &lt;</span><a href="http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/empire/09.shtml"><span>http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/empire/09.shtml</span></a>&gt;</p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal"><span>Morey, William C. “The Five Good Emperors,-Nerva to Marcus Aurelius” <em>Outlines Roman History. </em>By Morey. New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: American Book Company, 1901. N. pag. <em>Forum Romanum.</em> Web. 10 Feb. 2011 &lt;</span><a href="http://www.forumromanum.org/history/morey26.html"><span>http://www.forumromanum.org/history/morey26.html</span></a><span>&gt;</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Rees, D.A. “Introduction.” <em>Meditations</em>. By Marcus Aurelius. Trans. A.S.L. Farquharson. New York: Knopf, 1992. i-xi. Print.
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;line-height: normal"><span>Meditations</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;line-height: normal"><span>Marcus Aurelius – Ca A.D. 170</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>“Rejoice and set up your rest in one thing: to pass from act to act of fellowship, keeping God in remembrance” (Aurelius 35).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>So run the thoughts of Marcus Aurelius, author of a unique work that the world has come to know as “Meditations”. Aurelius composed this work over a period of years when he was Emperor of the Roman Empire, with a commonly accepted date of authorship of circa A.D. 170. Originally untitled, the text consists of a collection of personal reflections made by the emperor that document his pursuit of virtue through the Stoic Philosophy. In fact, “Meditations” is one of the only sources of information on Stoic ethics that has survived in its entirety, allowing people of subsequent eras to learn of the graceful simplicity inherent in Stoic beliefs. Deeply personal and striving for eloquence, “Meditations” gives a unique glimpse of a man who was ruler of the largest empire the world had ever known and was still dedicated to living an ethical life. These are the reasons that Aurelius’ work has survived for so long, and also why “Meditations” should be preserved for future generations.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>“Meditations” was born of a Roman Society that had enjoyed a long period of relative peace and security. Aurelius inherited an empire that had benefited greatly from his predecessors, the first four of the “Five Good Emperors”. Taxes had been lowered, housing and education had been provided for the poor, and persecution of Christians had been halted. Rome was teeming with public works projects, bringing new temples, aqueducts, baths, and theatres. Promotion of the arts had been made a priority and the borders of the empire had been secured (Morey). Roman citizens of this era enjoyed a more egalitarian environment where the focus had shifted from military campaigns to cultural refinement. Rather than starting from scratch, the Romans based their cultural pursuits on the foundation that had already been laid by the Greeks (Morey).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>A Greek creation that did particularly well with the Romans was the Stoic Philosophy. From its inception in 300 B.C. through 180 A.D. it was the most influential school of thought in the empire (Rees viii). Seneca and Cicero were among the many notable Romans of this period who wrote works that showed a distinct Stoic influence. Founded by Zeno of Citius, Stoicism grew out of two key beliefs of the Cynics; that people possessed an inner governing agent of morality, and that humanity should flee an overly materialistic society to return to a natural state. Stoicism took each of these a step further. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 10pt 0in 0.0001pt;text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>The Stoics believed that this inner morality was held in common by all of humanity, that it was both rational and social, and that it surrounds us and determines our paths (Rees vii). Thus, we should live in fellowship as we are all spiritually connected, and anything that befalls us must be for the greater good because all things are guided by Nature. Secondly, the Stoics believed that any strong feelings, whether of attachment to material possessions or displays of raw emotion, were the result of inaccurate perceptions. A reasoned appraisal was to be the measure of all things (Baltzly). Stoics were also called to live a life free of any unnecessary obligations or activities that went against their natural inclinations. This was meant to leave them free to live in harmony with the guiding spirit of nature (Baltzly).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>“Meditations” is an auto-documentary of Marcus’s efforts to reason out these beliefs and apply them to his own life. A singular work of its time, it is the living expression of the moralistic strivings of a Roman Emperor, the only emperor to leave this type of record and have it published so widely. Ironically, most scholars agree that it was never intended for publication. Written with little thought to form or continuity, the text consists of a series of short, reflective prose statements with no clear organizing principle. Full of repetition, “Meditations” returns to each of Stoicisms varied precepts time and again, as the emperor searches for the best metaphor, the best parallel, and the best words. We are thankful that he did; “Meditations” is one of only three surviving examples of a complete work on the topic of Stoic Ethics.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Though published wide, it was also published late. The first known reference to Marcus’s work was by a philosopher named Themistius in the 4<sup>th</sup> century, almost 200 years after it was written (Hadot 21). It is most likely that at the time “Meditations” was written Aurelius himself was the only audience. Recording his thoughts in this way must have been a means of self reflection for Marcus. The first chapter pays tribute to the influential figures in his upbringing, describing the virtues they imparted to him. Here we see some of the influences that may have led the Emperor to the Stoic way of life. His grandfather is thanked for “the lessons of noble character and even temper.” His father is thanked for his modesty, and his mother for teaching “…piety…simplicity too in diet and to be far removed from the ways of the rich”. Diognetus, his painting tutor, is thanked for teaching Marcus, “…to aspire to the camp-bed and skin coverlet and the other things which are part of the Greek training.” <span> </span>Appolonius, orator and Stoic philosopher, taught Marcus “…to look to nothing else, even for a little while, except to reason”(Aurelius 1). It seems clear that the young emperor had been raised in preparation for the reserved, minimalistic life of the Stoic. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>The remainder of the text is dedicated to the emperor’s efforts to expound upon the Stoic path to enlightenment. Staying connected to his beliefs in this way was undoubtedly therapeutic to Aurelius as he navigated one of the most unique periods in Roman history. Hadrian, a previous emperor, had stipulated that Aurelius’s adopted brother Lucius Verus would ascend to rule alongside him as co-emperor. T</span><span>he more common reaction would have been to bristle at the idea of sharing his power. On the contrary, it seems that the Stoic belief in controlling the passions helped him accept this reality and work within it for the greater good. The two emperors ruled side by side with no sign of rancor whatsoever (Knox). Sadly, </span><span>Marcus’s reign was also the end of the era of peace for the Romans; he was entrenched in war almost from the day of his ascension (Hadot 2). Book Two, titled <em>Written Among the Qadi on the River Gran,</em> was actually written in the field during a military campaign (Aurelius 104). The words of this chapter are somber, and the emperor seems to be contemplating his own imminent mortality. Still, Aurelius’s firm dedication to his philosophy is undeniable. I believe that recording these thoughts helped to strengthen the emperor as faced the greatest challenges of his life.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Though Marcus did not live to see his work reach a refined state, “Meditations” in its present form has endured for centuries. Scholars seem to agree that its survival is due to the unique place it holds in the scholarly canon of philosophy. Pierre Hadot is the author of <em>The Inner Citadel, </em>a detailed analysis of “Meditations”. In Hadot's words: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>In world literature one finds a lot of preachers, lesson-givers, and censors, who moralize to others with complacency, irony, cynicism, or bitterness; but it is extremely rare to find a person training himself to live and to think like a human being (Hadot 312-313). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Elsewhere, Hadot compares “Meditations” to: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>…[an] ever-new spring[s], to which humanity comes to drink. If we can transcend [its] perishable aspects, we can sense in [it] an imperishable spirit which calls us to a choice of life, to the transformation of ourselves, and to a complete revision of our attitude with regard to human beings and the world (Hadot 39). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This heavy praise seems to confirm “Meditations” as a singular work of lasting value.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>D.A. Rees of Jesus College, Oxford, has also written on the lasting impact of Aurelius’s struggle toward enlightenment.<span> </span>“…the Meditations remain, unendingly moving and inspiring, the communing with itself of a thoughtful and devout soul upon the greatest of human issues.” (7) xi Again, this uncommon record of an emperors moral strivings are seen as inspirational, much as they certainly were to the author himself.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>Earlier in his journey toward enlightenment the emperor drew inspiration from the teachings of a Stoic named Epictetus. One of Epictetus’s more accessible works was a compendium of Stoic sayings selected from his larger works.” Titled “Enchiridion”, or more simply “The Handbook”, this work was assembled in A.D. 135 and like “Meditations” also consists of short, philosophical reflections with Stoic ethics at its core. Though they shared a philosophy, Marcus and Epictetus were separated by a huge gulf of life experience. Far from an emperor, Epictetus came to Rome as a slave and at one point was even banished from the Italian peninsula (Graver). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This difference in status is ironic. Epictetus seems fully willing to speak on his own authority while Marcus, the emperor, relies sometimes on name dropping. Further, while “Meditations” is clearly the work of a novice striving for advancement, “Enchiridion” is a masterful collection of polished metaphors designed to be easily accessible to beginners. At only 52 “verses”, “Enchiridion” accomplishes a thorough going through while “Meditations” wanders to 12 Chapters. Still, “Meditations” conveys a more personal tone. Marcus’s philosophy is obviously linked to the events of his day to day life, which sometimes creep into the text. By contrast, Epictetus draws broad parallels for his audience to latch on to. And though he never comes near the line of offensiveness he can sometimes come across as a bit of a smart aleck.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>This irreverence was probably a calculated element of Epictetus’s style. It helps to convey a lively tone, perhaps to hold the interest of weary students growing tired of their studies. He writes as an extrovert, bursting with energy, fully versed in his philosophy. The emperor comes across as a much more solemn figure, gazing inward to seek out some impurity and exorcise it. Even when he says “you” he seems to be addressing himself, morosely, instead of some prospective audience. While Epictetus skips along, Marcus steadfastly holds the course that will lead him to his personal truths.<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>To t</span><span>hose familiar with “Meditations”, the quote that begins this essay may give a hint about the work’s enduring appeal. But what is a true act of fellowship? What does God ask of us? These were the questions being asked and answered by a ruler who could have pursued a reign of tyranny and repression. I found this to be inspiring and more than a little amazing. I was also pleased to learn more about a philosophy that held many beliefs in common with my own faith, Christianity. It was entertaining to see a radically different context applied to familiar beliefs such as living a non-materialistic lifestyle connected with an all encompassing spiritual force. Despite this, my research has revealed the unfortunate fact that the persecution of Christians was resumed during Aurelius’s reign. (Morey) In light of the words he recorded, I found this to be shocking and inexplicable.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%"><span>Looking beyond this, I also have mixed feelings about invading another person’s journal, thoughts they may not have intended to share. But this may not have been the case at all. We could be looking at a rough draft that the emperor simply did not live to complete. Still, I have my reservations. If I had known the nature of this work ahead of time my respect for the privacy of others probably would have kept me from reading it. But then I would have missed out on quotes like the one below, words that speak so well of Marcus’s contribution: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in;text-align: justify;line-height: 200%"><span>Whosoever does injustice commits sin; for Universal Nature having made reasonable creatures for the sake of one another, to benefit each other according to desert but in no wise to do injury, manifestly he who transgresses her will sins against the most venerable of the gods, because Universal Nature is a nature of what is, and what is is related to all that exists. [sic]</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"><span><span> </span>So for any that take the opportunity to reflect alongside the emperor, the value of “Meditations” speaks for itself. Never before had an emperor left such a singular gift of philosophical teaching. If not for his efforts, we would be without a significant portion of what we know of a philosophy that permeated the Roman world. We would also miss a chance to reflect that even the best among us can take a false step, as the contradiction of Aurelius’s persecutions has shown. Preserving his “Meditations”, we preserve a snapshot of the human spirit, searching for truth.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;line-height: 200%;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>(10) Hadot, Pierre. <em>The <span>Inner Citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</span></em>. Trans. Michael Chase. Cambridge, MA: <span> </span>Harvard UP, 1998. Print.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"><span><span> </span>(8) Morey, William C. “The Five Good Emperors,-Nerva to Marcus Aurelius” <em>Outlines Roman History. </em>By Morey. New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: American Book Company, 1901. N. pag. <em>Forum Romanum.</em> Web. 10 Feb. 2011 &lt;</span><a href="http://www.forumromanum.org/history/morey26.html"><span>http://www.forumromanum.org/history/morey26.html</span></a><span>&gt;</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;line-height: 24pt;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>(7) Aurelius, Marcus. <em>Meditations</em>. Trans. A.S.L. Farquharson. New York: Knopf, 1992. Print.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;line-height: 24pt;background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white"><span>(7 intro) Rees, D.A. “Introduction.” <em>Meditations</em>. By Marcus Aurelius. Trans. A.S.L. Farquharson. New York: Knopf, 1992. i-xi. Print.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>(1) Kamtekar, Rachana. "Marcus Aurelius ." <em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Ed. Edward N. Zalta Stanford University, Winter 2010 Edition. Web.<span> </span>10 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marcus-aurelius/&gt;</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>(5) Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism." <em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Stanford University, 15 Apr. 1996. Web.<span> </span>10 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/&gt;</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>(12) Epictetus. <em>The Enchiridion.</em> Trans. Elizabeth Carter. <em>The Internet Classics Archive: 441 Searchable Works of Classical Literature</em>. MIT. Web. 10 Feb. 2011. </span><a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html"><span>http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html</span></a></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>(2) Knox, E.L. Skip. "The ‘Five Good Emperors’ - Marcus Aurelius (161-180)." <em>History of Western Civilization</em>. Boise State University. Web. 13 Feb. 2011. &lt;</span><a href="http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/empire/09.shtml"><span>http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/westciv/empire/09.shtml</span></a>&gt;</p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span>(13) Graver, Margaret R. “Epictetus.” <em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Ed. Edward N. Zalta Stanford University, Spring 2009 Edition. Web. 13 Feb. 2011 &lt;</span><a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epictetus/"><span>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epictetus/</span></a><span>&gt;</span></p>
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